De Officiis
De Officiis
Cicero's classic guide to duty, honor, usefulness, and public character.
About this book
De Officiis is Cicero's late manual of moral and political conduct, written for his son but aimed at anyone who must act in public life. It asks how honor relates to advantage, when expediency becomes corruption, and what duties bind citizens to one another. Its enduring value lies in treating ethics as practical judgment under pressure, not as theory removed from civic responsibility.
How do you want to read?
- BOOK I, Part 12402 words
In this opening chapter, Cicero lays the foundation for his discussion of moral duty, addressing his son Marcus and emphasizing the importance of blending Greek and Latin learning. He prepares to define duty itself.
- BOOK I, Part 22584 words
Justice, the crown of virtues, binds society together. Cicero explores its two forms: not harming others and using common goods for all. But what happens when circumstances shift? This chapter examines when duties change and how to avoid the traps of injustice.
- BOOK I, Part 32657 words
In this chapter, Cicero turns from the duties of justice to the nuances of generosity, exploring how kindness must be tempered by wisdom and fairness. He warns against giving that harms or exceeds one's means, setting the stage for a deeper inquiry into the bonds of human fellowship.
- BOOK I, Part 42208 words
This chapter explores the bonds that unite human society, from universal fellowship to family and friendship, and examines the nature of duty and true courage. It challenges us to consider where our deepest obligations lie.
- BOOK I, Part 53075 words
Cicero weighs the life of retirement against public service, arguing that those with ability should embrace civic duty. He calls for courage, wisdom, and calm in statesmen, and urges that peace and civil achievements surpass military glory.
- BOOK I, Part 62961 words
As we explore political duty and personal conduct, Cicero turns to the virtue of propriety-decorum-which harmonizes with our nature and underlies all moral action.
- BOOK I, Part 73222 words
As we explore duty, Cicero turns to the role of individual nature. He introduces two personae-universal reason and personal character-arguing that true propriety lies in being true to oneself, not in imitating others.
- BOOK I, Part 82440 words
As we navigate life's choices, Cicero reminds us that our natural bent should guide our path. This chapter explores how duties shift with age, status, and circumstance, urging consistency in all actions.
- BOOK I, Part 92860 words
In this chapter, Cicero turns to the finer points of propriety in daily life-from house building to orderly conduct. He emphasizes that dignity and moderation must guide even our smallest actions, setting the stage for a discussion of how to balance competing duties.
- BOOK I, Part 10451 words
Cicero now argues that duties rooted in our social nature outweigh those from pure knowledge. He presents three reasons why serving others is closer to our natural instincts than solitary study.
- BOOK II, Part 12738 words
In this chapter, Cicero shifts from moral rectitude to expediency, arguing that the two are inseparable. He defends his turn to philosophy amid political turmoil and sets the stage for a discussion on how human cooperation is essential for achieving practical benefits.
- BOOK II, Part 22614 words
Cicero turns to the question of how to secure lasting influence, arguing that love, not fear, is the surest foundation. He prepares to examine the virtues that win hearts and the dangers of ruling by terror.
- BOOK II, Part 31821 words
Cicero now turns from the nature of glory to the practical steps for attaining it. He argues that justice is the essential foundation, and he offers guidance on how a young man can build a reputation through character and eloquence.
- BOOK II, Part 42253 words
This chapter explores the two forms of liberality: personal service and gifts of money. Cicero weighs their merits, cautioning against wasteful spending while advocating for generosity that builds lasting goodwill.
- BOOK II, Part 52964 words
Cicero now turns to the principles of beneficence, weighing character against wealth in conferring favors. He argues that true kindness lies in personal service and integrity, not in lavish gifts. This chapter explores how to give wisely and justly.
- BOOK II, Part 62093 words
As Cicero turns to the dangers of avarice in statesmen, he warns against policies that redistribute property or cancel debts. Through historical examples, he will argue that such measures destroy harmony and undermine the state's foundation.
- BOOK III, Part 12655 words
This chapter confronts the apparent clash between moral duty and personal gain, arguing that true expediency never conflicts with honor. Cicero prepares to resolve this tension by examining Stoic principles and Panaetius’s unfinished work.
- BOOK III, Part 22980 words
As we approach this chapter, Cicero confronts a persistent moral puzzle: what happens when what seems advantageous clashes with what is right? He prepares to argue that true expediency never truly conflicts with moral rectitude, setting the stage for a careful examination of apparent dilemmas.
- BOOK III, Part 33281 words
As we delve into this chapter, Cicero confronts a timeless moral dilemma: the apparent clash between expediency and virtue. Through vivid examples and philosophical debate, he challenges us to examine whether true advantage can ever be divorced from what is right.
- BOOK III, Part 42787 words
Cicero now pits two Stoic philosophers against each other to test whether honesty always trumps profit. Through a series of everyday transactions, he forces us to ask: when does silence become deceit?
- BOOK III, Part 52329 words
As we delve into this chapter, Cicero continues his argument that true advantage can never be found in wrongdoing. He challenges us to examine cases where expediency seems to conflict with morality, warning that such appearances are deceptive.
- BOOK III, Part 63390 words
As Cicero deepens his argument that true expediency never conflicts with moral rectitude, he turns to vivid examples-from tyrants to shipwrecks-to test this principle. The chapter examines how apparent advantages crumble when weighed against honor, preparing us to see why even the most tempting gains can be hollow.
- BOOK III, Part 73466 words
In this chapter, Cicero delves into the tension between apparent expediency and moral duty, using the contrasting examples of Ulysses and Regulus to illustrate his argument. He challenges the notion that what seems beneficial can ever be truly right if it violates ethical principles.
- BOOK III, Part 81241 words
In this chapter, Cicero sharpens his case against those who would separate expediency from moral rectitude, using the story of Regulus and the Cannae envoys to show that deceit only worsens wrongdoing.
- BOOK I, Part 12402 words
- BOOK I, Part 1573 words
In this chapter, Cicero begins his exploration of moral duty, addressing his son Marcus. He sets the stage by emphasizing the importance of combining Greek and Latin studies and introduces duty as central to all aspects of life.
- BOOK I, Part 2548 words
This chapter explores the nature of justice, its violations, and how duties shift when circumstances change. Cicero defines justice as refraining from harm and promoting common good, while warning against both wrongful acts and neglect of others.
- BOOK I, Part 3659 words
Cicero turns to the duties of war and generosity, arguing that true justice governs even conflict. He contrasts force and fraud, urging sincerity in kindness and careful discernment in whom we help.
- BOOK I, Part 4538 words
In this chapter, we explore the bonds that unite human society, from universal fellowship to the special love of country. Duty varies with closeness, and true courage is inseparable from justice. The discussion sets the stage for understanding how virtue guides our actions.
- BOOK I, Part 5684 words
Cicero weighs the quiet life against public service, urging those with ability to lead. He argues that civic achievements surpass military ones and that statesmen need courage and wisdom. The chapter explores the virtues of governance and the pursuit of peace.
- BOOK I, Part 6692 words
Cicero turns to the conduct of political leaders, urging them to prioritize the common good and avoid faction. He then introduces propriety and self-control as essential to moral rectitude, setting the stage for a deeper exploration of decorum.
- BOOK I, Part 7766 words
As we explore the seventh chapter, Cicero deepens his argument on duty by introducing the idea that each person has a unique nature. He suggests that true propriety comes not from imitating others but from honoring one's own character.
- BOOK I, Part 8552 words
As we explore how duties shift with age, status, and circumstance, Cicero guides us to align our actions with our natural bent while upholding propriety in every gesture and word.
- BOOK I, Part 9594 words
As we explore the principles of propriety, Cicero guides us through the nuances of conduct, from building a house to choosing a livelihood. The key lies in balancing dignity, order, and seasonableness.
- BOOK I, Part 10133 words
This chapter weighs two kinds of duty: those rooted in social bonds and those born from knowledge. Cicero argues that nature itself gives priority to the former, challenging the value of solitary contemplation.
- BOOK II, Part 1652 words
Cicero turns to the question of expediency, arguing that it cannot be separated from moral rectitude. He warns against a pernicious doctrine that would divide them, setting the stage for a deeper exploration of how virtue and human cooperation are intertwined.
- BOOK II, Part 2660 words
Cicero turns from virtue in general to the practical art of winning hearts. He argues that love, not fear, is the surest foundation for lasting influence, setting the stage for a discussion of how to secure affection and trust.
- BOOK II, Part 3389 words
Cicero now turns to the practical path to glory, rooted in justice. He argues that true fame grows from genuine virtue, not pretense, and offers concrete advice for young men seeking a good reputation.
- BOOK II, Part 4473 words
As we explore the nuances of generosity, Cicero distinguishes between giving money and offering personal service. This chapter examines which form is more honorable and how to practice liberality wisely.
- BOOK II, Part 5610 words
How do we choose whom to help? Cicero weighs character against fortune, arguing that true beneficence serves the good, not the wealthy. Justice, he insists, must anchor every act of giving.
- BOOK II, Part 6474 words
Cicero turns to the dangers of avarice in leadership, warning against policies that redistribute property or cancel debts. He argues such measures destroy the harmony essential to a state, setting the stage for his defense of property rights and credit.
- BOOK III, Part 11619 words
This chapter explores whether moral duty and expediency can truly conflict, a question Panaetius left unfinished. Cicero prepares to examine the Stoic view that the honorable is always expedient.
- BOOK III, Part 2688 words
When does a conflict between doing right and gaining advantage arise? Cicero examines cases where apparent expediency tempts us, urging a deeper look at what truly benefits both self and society.
- BOOK III, Part 3745 words
Cicero confronts a persistent human error: mistaking apparent advantage for true good. He insists that moral wrong can never be truly expedient, preparing us to examine cases where self-interest seems to clash with virtue.
- BOOK III, Part 4546 words
Cicero examines whether concealing defects for profit can ever be expedient. Through contrasting views of Stoic philosophers, he tests the boundary between lawful silence and fraudulent deceit.
- BOOK III, Part 5505 words
In this chapter, Cicero deepens the argument that true advantage never conflicts with moral duty. He challenges the reader to examine cases where apparent expediency tempts us away from justice, setting the stage for a decisive conclusion.
- BOOK III, Part 6776 words
In this chapter, Cicero argues that true expediency is inseparable from moral rectitude. He examines cases where benefit seems to conflict with duty, using historical examples to show that nothing can be expedient that is not morally right.
- BOOK III, Part 7789 words
Cicero sharpens the tension between duty and self-interest, using Regulus's oath as a crucible. Prepare to weigh whether any gain can justify breaking a promise, even to an enemy.
- BOOK III, Part 8307 words
Cicero contrasts Regulus's steadfast honor with the deceit of the Cannae envoys, then challenges Epicurean pleasure as incompatible with virtue. He prepares his son for a moral lesson that transcends apparent expediency.
- BOOK I, Part 1573 words
- BOOK I, Part 1143 words
Cicero addresses his son Marcus, emphasizing the importance of studying moral duty. He introduces the four cardinal virtues as the foundation of ethical life, setting the stage for a practical exploration of duty.
- BOOK I, Part 2138 words
In this chapter, Cicero explores justice as the foundation of duty, examining when principles may shift. He warns against legal trickery and shows that circumstances can change obligations.
- BOOK I, Part 3149 words
This chapter examines the moral boundaries of conflict and generosity. Cicero argues that war must be a last resort, guided by justice and fidelity even toward enemies.
- BOOK I, Part 4136 words
In this chapter, Cicero explores the bonds that unite human society, from universal fellowship to the special ties of country and family. He then examines true fortitude, distinguishing it from mere ambition.
- BOOK I, Part 5182 words
Cicero weighs the merits of retirement against public service, urging those with ability to lead. He argues that statesmanship demands greater courage and wisdom than philosophy, setting the stage for a defense of civic duty over private leisure.
- BOOK I, Part 6158 words
This chapter explores Cicero's views on political duty and the virtue of propriety. Leaders must serve the common good, while decorum and self-control guide all moral actions.
- BOOK I, Part 7185 words
In this chapter, Cicero explores how duty is shaped by our unique individual nature, not just universal reason. He introduces the concept of two personae and argues that true propriety lies in being true to oneself.
- BOOK I, Part 8126 words
How do our duties shift with age, status, and circumstance? Cicero argues that propriety demands consistency and following our natural bent.
- BOOK I, Part 9181 words
In this chapter, Cicero turns to the finer points of propriety-how order and timing shape our actions. He argues that even our homes reflect character, and that harmony in conduct matters more than harmony in sound.
- BOOK I, Part 10126 words
In this chapter, Cicero argues that duties rooted in our social nature outweigh those from pure knowledge. He contends that even wisdom itself serves social ends, setting the stage for a bold conclusion about the primacy of justice.
- BOOK II, Part 1154 words
As Cicero deepens his argument, he insists that true advantage never conflicts with moral goodness. This chapter explores how human cooperation and virtue are inseparable in achieving life's benefits.
- BOOK II, Part 2162 words
In this chapter, Cicero contrasts love and fear as foundations for power. He warns that fear breeds hatred, which no power can withstand, and argues that lasting influence is won through affection and justice.
- BOOK II, Part 3134 words
Cicero turns to the practical pursuit of glory, grounding it in justice. He argues that true honor cannot be faked and offers a path for young men to earn lasting reputation.
- BOOK II, Part 4120 words
Cicero now turns from forensic duties to the ethics of giving. He weighs two forms of liberality, cautioning that generosity without wisdom can do more harm than good.
- BOOK II, Part 5172 words
Cicero turns to the practice of beneficence, weighing the value of personal character against material wealth in acts of kindness. He warns that justice must underpin all generosity, especially in public life.
- BOOK II, Part 6128 words
As Cicero turns to the dangers of greed, he warns that the worst vice in a statesman is avarice. He argues that laws redistributing property tear apart the very fabric of the state.
- BOOK III, Part 1173 words
This chapter explores the tension between moral duty and apparent advantage. Panaetius left a crucial question unfinished: how to decide when honor and expediency seem to clash.
- BOOK III, Part 2164 words
In this chapter, Cicero tackles a classic dilemma: what happens when what seems useful clashes with what is right? He argues that true advantage never opposes moral goodness.
- BOOK III, Part 3220 words
In this chapter, Cicero confronts a persistent human error: the belief that what seems expedient can be separated from what is morally right. He argues that true expediency is always aligned with virtue, using examples from myth and history to illustrate his point.
- BOOK III, Part 4150 words
Cicero weighs whether concealing defects for profit can ever be right. He pits Stoic principles against everyday deals, asking if silence is as bad as lies.
- BOOK III, Part 5146 words
This chapter distills Cicero's argument that genuine advantage never conflicts with moral rightness. He insists that nature itself forbids any separation between the two, setting the stage for a decisive conclusion.
- BOOK III, Part 6175 words
In this chapter, Cicero argues that true expediency is inseparable from moral rectitude. He uses historical examples to show that what seems beneficial cannot be so if it conflicts with virtue.
- BOOK III, Part 7189 words
Cicero sets up a clash between what seems useful and what is right. He warns that true advantage never conflicts with moral duty, preparing us to examine two stark examples.
- BOOK III, Part 8109 words
Cicero contrasts two oath-breakers to show that deceit only deepens guilt. He then challenges Epicurean pleasure, arguing it cannot coexist with virtue.
- BOOK I, Part 1143 words
Related works
Thematic kin
- Parallel Lives
Cicero onderzoekt plicht en publieke rol; Plutarch toont zulke vragen in levens van staatslieden, veldheren en morele voorbeelden.
Later works building on this
- The Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle
Cicero's plichtentaal krijgt diepte naast Aristoteles: niet alleen wat moet ik doen, maar welk mens moet ik worden?